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adult stem cells
Undifferentiated cells
in a tissue. These cells can
grow into any of the types
of specialised cells in that
tissue.
allele
One of two or more
alternative forms of a gene.
A person may have two copies
of the same allele
(homozygous) or two
different forms
(heterozygous). Different
alleles arise from changes
in the base sequence of that
gene through mutations. For
example, the gene for eye
colour has different alleles
resulting in blue or brown
eyes.
animal model
A laboratory animal with
a specific disease that
researchers experiment with
to find out more about the
causes of a disease, its
diagnosis in humans, and to
investigate or trial new
treatments or preventative
actions. Animal models of
disease may occur naturally
in an animal population, be
bred using techniques such
as genetic engineering, or
by exposing animals to
environments that induce
that disease to develop.
amino acids
Amino acids are the
building blocks of proteins.
There are 20 known amino
acids found in living
organisms. The sequence of
amino acids in a protein
determines its function.
This sequence of amino acids
is determined by the
sequence of bases found in
the gene coding for that
protein.
amniocentesis
A procedure in which a
small amount of amniotic
fluid (the fluid surrounding
a baby in the womb) is drawn
out using a needle and
syringe. Because amniotic
fluid contains cells from
the baby, it can be used to
test for chromosomal and
genetic disorders, as well
as certain birth defects.
anaemia
A condition caused by a
reduced number of red blood
cells or haemoglobin. This
results in reduced
oxygen-carrying capacity of
the blood, and reduced
aerobic activity in body
cells.
antibodies
Proteins produced by the
immune system of humans and
other vertebrates in
response to the presence of
a specific antigen.
anticoagulant
Substance that prevents
blood from clotting.
anticodon
A sequence of three
bases in a molecule of
transfer RNA (tRNA) that
binds to a complementary
codon in messenger RNA
(mRNA). Each anticodon
designates a specific amino
acid to be added to a
growing polypeptide.
antigen
Any substance that
stimulates the production of
antibodies in the body. For
example, pollen grains,
dust, bacteria and viruses
are recognised by the body
as being foreign and it
responds by producing
specific antibodies to the
antigen.
anthropocentrism
A view that regards
humans as the central
element of the universe.
Proponents believe that we
should only protect and
replenish the environment so
that it serves human
purposes such as producing
food and drugs, and that the
fate of animals and plants
are not morally significant
except in terms of
sustaining human wellbeing.
artificial insemination
The placement of sperm
inside the female
reproductive tract to
improve the chances of
fertilisation and pregnancy
occurring. Artificial
insemination is also called
intrauterine insemination.
assisted reproductive
technologies
Assisted reproductive
technologies (ART) refer to
advanced fertility
techniques, such as in
vitro fertilisation (IVF),
used to bring eggs and sperm
together to help achieve
pregnancy.
autosomal dominant
'Autosomal' refers to a
non-sex chromosome.
Autosomal dominance is when
one particular form of a
gene (one allele) dominates
over other alleles, and is
always expressed when
present in an individual,
whether they are homozygous
or heterozygous for that
allele.
avian influenza
Referred to as the "bird
flu", this is a highly
contagious influenza virus
that can infect any bird.
Bacillus
thuringiensis
A species of soil
bacterium that possess genes
for a group of insecticides
(Bt toxins).
Different strains of the
bacterium produce different
Bt toxins. Some
organic farmers use this
bacterium as an alternative
to using chemicals to
control pest insects. The
genes for Bt toxins
have been added to GM cotton
plants so that the plants
produce the insecticides.
bacteria
A large group of
single-celled organisms that
do not have organelles
enclosed in membranes. Most
of their
DNA is located in one
chromosome and the
remainder in small circular
plasmids. They have a
cell wall composed of
protein and complex
carbohydrate over a
plasma membrane.
baculovirus
A type of virus that
specifically infects insect
cells.
bagasse
The dry, fibrous residue
that remains after the
stalks of sugar cane have
been crushed and all the
juice extracted. It can be
used as a source of
cellulose for some paper
products.
base
Part of four types of
simple molecules or
nucleotides (adenine,
thymine, cytosine and
guanine) that are the
sub-units (building blocks)
of
DNA and
RNA.
base pairs
Pairs of complementary
bases that form each rung of
the
DNA
double helix. Adenine
pairs with thymine and
cytosine pairs with guanine.
base sequence
The order of the
chemical units (bases)
adenine, thymine, cytosine
and guanine in
DNA that forms the
genetic code. The sequence
of the bases will determine
what
protein is produced.
biocide
Any chemical agent that
can kill a living
organism. For example,
pesticides kill insects.
biocontainment
A process aimed at
keeping biological organisms
within a limited space or
area. For example, if an
outbreak of a cow disease is
found on one farm, a
biocontainment process would
aim at stopping the disease
from spreading to other
farms.
biodiesel
An alternative fuel for
use in diesel engines that
is made from natural
renewable sources such
animal fats or vegetable
oils, and does not contain
petroleum. It has similar
properties to petroleum but
releases fewer environmental
pollutants in its emissions.
Biodiesel can be used in
diesel engines with little
or no modifications, either
as a diesel fuel substitute,
or added to petroleum-based
fuels to reduce their
polluting effect. Examples
include oils from soybeans,
rapeseed, sunflowers or
animal tallow.
bioethics
The study of the ethical
and moral implications of
applications of biomedical
research and
biotechnology.
biological control
The control of a
population of one
organism by another
organism. Generally the
controlling organism is a
predator or
disease-causing organism of
the species being
controlled.
biofouling
Living organisms that
attach to and start living
on any object that is
submerged in the sea.
Commonly seen as barnacles
attached to the hulls of
ships or the bodies of
whales.
bioremediation
The use of plants and
micro-organisms to
consume or otherwise help
remove materials (such as
toxic chemical wastes
and metals) from
contaminated sites
(especially from soil and
water). A natural process in
which environmental problems
are treated by the use of
bacteria or other
micro-organisms that break
down a problem substance,
such as oil, into less
harmful molecules.
biotechnologists
Scientists who use
biological processes to
develop novel products.
biotechnology
1. A broad term
generally used to describe
the use of biology in
industrial processes such as
agriculture, brewing and
drug development. The term
also refers to the
production of
genetically modified
organisms or the
manufacture of products from
genetically modified
organisms. 2. The use of
plants, animals and
micro-organisms to
create products or
processes. Traditional
applications include animal
breeding, brewing beer with
yeast, and cheese making
with
bacteria. Recent
developments include the use
of enzymes or bacteria in a
wide range of applications,
including waste management,
industrial production, food
production and remediation
of contaminated land. Modern
biotechnology also includes
the use of
gene technology, which
allows us to move genetic
material from one species to
another.
biotreatment
The treatment of a waste
or
hazardous substance
using organisms such as
bacteria, fungi and
protozoa (see
bioremediation).
blastocyst
After a
mammalian ovum is
fertilised, it begins to
divide. The blastocyst, an
early stage of this process,
consists of a fluid-filled
sphere surrounded by a layer
of cells. A mass of cells at
one side will become the
embryo. The blastocyst is
formed before implantation
in the uterus.
blastomere
Any of the cells in the
early embryo produced as the
result of cell division in
the fertilised egg. A
blastocyst is made up of
many blastomeres.
Bt toxins
Insecticidal proteins
produced by the soil
micro-organism called
Bacillus thuringiensis.
Bt is an
abbreviation of Bacillus
thuringiensis.
Bt crops
Crop plants that contain
genes for
Bt
toxins. Examples are
Bollgard® cotton and Ingard®
cotton.
calicivirus
The
virus that causes rabbit
calicivirus disease (RCD) in
rabbits. It is spread by
mosquitoes and fleas.
cancer
An abnormal,
uncontrolled and rapid
growth of cells that invade
and destroy surrounding
tissues. Cancer is a broad
term for more than 100
diseases characterised by
this growth. Cells from the
tumour can break away (metastasise)
and spread through the
bloodstream or lymph system
to other parts of the body,
creating new tumours.
carbohydrate
A chemical compound that
contains only carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O)
and has the general formula
Cx (H2O)y. Examples include
sugars, starches and
cellulose. Plant
carbohydrates constitute a
major food class and are a
basic source of energy for
all animals.
carrier
An individual who
carries one copy of a
recessive
gene for a hereditary
condition.
cell
The basic unit of all
organisms. It is a small,
water-filled compartment
filled with chemicals and
structures called
organelles. It contains
a complete copy of the
organism's
genome in the organelle
called the nucleus, and can
reproduce itself.
cell-based therapies
Involve transplanting
stem cells into damaged
tissues to regenerate the
various
cell types of that
tissue. For example, bone
marrow transplants are a
form of cell-based therapy
that have been used to treat
leukaemia for more than 30
years. New
stem cell research may
lead to cell-based therapies
to treat a range of
conditions, including heart
disease, spinal injuries,
diabetes and Parkinson
disease.
cell division
The process by which
cells split into two
copies of the original. The
DNA of the original cell
is copied and one copy sent
to each cell, ensuring that
both have the correct amount
of DNA.
cell line
Cells that grow and
divide indefinitely outside
the body, and are originally
derived from one cell of a
specific type.
cellulose
A long-chain, branched
polysaccharide that forms
the
cell walls of plants.
centromere
The most condensed and
constricted region of a
chromosome. Joins the
two chromatids of the
chromosome and is also the
attachment point of spindle
fibres during
cell division when the
two chromatids separate.
chemotherapy
The application of
chemicals (drugs) to control
the growth of cells that
form a cancer.
cholesterol
A long-chain molecule
that is absorbed from food
in the intestine or produced
in the liver. It is needed
as a part of blood plasma
and of
cell membranes.
chromosome
A threadlike component
in cells that consists of a
single long molecule of
DNA coated with
proteins. Genes are
carried on the chromosomes.
clone
A group of
genes,
cells or
organisms derived from a
common ancestor. Each clone
is genetically identical.
cloning
The process of producing
a genetically identical
copy.
Genes can be cloned, as
well as
cells and whole
organisms. A
clone is produced from
one individual cell through
an asexual process.
codon
A specific sequence of
three adjacent bases on a
strand of
DNA or
RNA that provides the
genetic code for a
particular
amino acid.
congenital
hypothyroidism
An
inherited
trait that results in
reduced activity of the
thyroid gland, generally due
to reduced production of
thyroid stimulating hormone.
The trait reduces the base
rate of the body's chemical
reactions, and results in
tissue swelling and weight
gain. It can cause
neurological and development
problems.
coronavirus
A single-stranded
RNA
virus that resembles a
crown when viewed under an
electron microscope because
of its petal-shaped
projections. Of the more
than 30 isolated strains of
coronavirus, three or four
infect humans and may cause
respiratory diseases such as
SARS and
gastroenteritis. They are
believed to cause a large
percentage of all common
cold cases in humans.
CSIRO
Commonwealth Scientific
and Industrial Research
Organisation. A
government-funded
organisation that carries
out science research for the
benefit of the community and
industry.
cystic fibrosis
An
inherited disease
resulting in abnormal mucus
secretion, which produces
severe respiratory problems,
incomplete digestion and
increased salt secretion in
sweat.
daughterless carp
Carp which only produce
male fish. This slows the
growth of the population
with the aim of reducing
overall carp numbers. Since
all fish embryos start life
as males, the technology
works by
silencing or switching
off the
gene responsible for
stimulating the development
of female embryos.
degradation
A gradual wearing down
or away. Also, with regard
to soil, a lowering of the
nutrient content and
associated ability to
support continuing crop
growth.
diabetes
A grouping of diseases
in which either the body
does not synthesise (make)
insulin, or its tissues are
insensitive to the insulin
that is synthesised.
differentiation
The process by which
cells and tissues undergo a
series of changes resulting
in their specialisation to a
specific form or function. A
differentiated
cell such as a muscle
cell or a skin cell contains
a full set of
genes of that
organism, but only
expresses the genes
necessary for its specific
function. In animals,
stem cells (both
embryonic and adult) are the
only cells capable of
undergoing differentiation
to form more specialised
cell types found in the
body.
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid. A
molecule of DNA consists of
a long chain of
nucleotides that are
composed of deoxyribose, a
5-carbon sugar, a phosphate
group linked to the
bases (nucleotides)
adenine, thymine, cytosine
and guanine. DNA contains
the genetic code that
controls the production of
proteins in living
organisms.
DNA carrier
1. Substance or particle
that can transfer genes into
a cell. These include
viruses, liposomes (fat
globules) and artificial
chromosomes (sequences
of
DNA created in a
laboratory) that can
transport large amounts of
DNA (see
vectors).
DNA fingerprinting /
profiling
A genetic tool used to
compare and contrast
DNA sequences using
electrophoresis. DNA
profiling is used in
forensic science and to help
in establishing parentage.
DNA polymerase
An
enzyme that helps in the
replication of
DNA molecules.
dominant
A dominant
gene will almost always
be expressed and lead to a
specific physical
characteristic. A dominant
trait will be expressed
in individuals that are
either homozygous or
heterozygous.
double helix
Twin, parallel spirals
that form the backbone of
DNA. The backbone is
formed from alternating
sugar and phosphate groups.
Down syndrome
An
inherited condition due
to an extra
chromosome 21, either as
a third chromosome 21 or
attached to chromosome 13,
14 or 15. Also called
trisomy 21.
ecocentrism
The view that considers
the whole environment or
ecosphere as important and
deserving of consideration,
without giving preference to
organisms such as
animals and humans. It
states that all elements of
the environment have worth
and should be valued and
cared for.
electrophoresis
Using an electric charge
to separate molecules in a
solution or gel according to
size. It is routinely used
to separate fragments of
DNA.
embryonic stem cells
Undifferentiated cells
in an embryo that are able
to multiply and become
differentiated into any type
of
cell in the body.
endangered
A species with such a
low population number that
it is in danger of
extinction.
environmental
stewardship
The view that humans
have a duty to manage and
care for the whole natural
environment; that we are
responsible for the
continued health of the
whole ecosystem, not just
the parts that benefit the
human race. It involves
integrating and applying
environmental values into a
process.
enzyme
A
protein that acts as a
catalyst, affecting the rate
at which a chemical reaction
occurs within a cell,
without being changed or
used up in the reaction.
erythropoietin
A
hormone released from
the kidneys and the liver in
response to low oxygen
concentrations in the blood.
It controls the rate of red
blood
cell production.
ethics
A branch of philosophy
that deals with morality. It
is concerned with
distinguishing between right
and wrong human actions,
both at an individual and
societal level. Ethics may
also apply to the rules or
standards that specify how
particular members of an
organisation should conduct
themselves.
eutrophication
Death of
organisms in a lake or
pond due to an overabundance
of algae that consume all of
the dissolved oxygen in the
water. This usually happens
when the water becomes rich
in mineral and organic
nutrients, often due to
fertiliser run off from
farms.
factor VIII and IX
Soluble blood proteins
that form part of the
cascade of the 12 reactions
of blood clotting. Factor
VIII deficiency is
associated with
haemophilia A while
factor IX deficiency is
associated with haemophilia
B.
feral
Domestic or introduced
animals living in wild
conditions, or plants that
have become wild.
fertilisation
The union of male and
female reproductive cells
(gametes) during the process
of sexual reproduction to
form a
cell called a zygote.
fungicide
A substance or chemical
that kills fungi.
gene
A sequence of
DNA that either codes
for the synthesis of a
specific
protein or has a
specific regulatory
function.
gene bank
A collection of
cells or artificial
chromosomes containing
known genetic information.
gene expression
Conversion of the
information coded within a
gene to
proteins that ultimately
control all the operations
in a cell.
gene mapping
The process of
determining where
genes are located on
individual
chromosomes, their
position in relation to
other genes and the distance
between them.
gene pool
All of the genetic
information, including all
variations, contained within
a population of a particular
species at a particular
time.
gene splicing
A technique used to join
segments of
DNA to form a new
genetic combination.
gene technology
See
genetic engineering.
gene testing
Methods that identify
the presence, absence or
mutation of a particular
gene in an individual.
gene therapy
The addition of a
functional
gene or groups of genes
to a
cell using recombinant
DNA techniques (see
gene splicing) to
correct a
hereditary disease.
genetic counselling
Counselling individuals
and prospective parents who
are at risk of a particular
genetic disease (either
themselves or their
potential child). Provides
them and their families with
education and information
about genetic-related
conditions such as the
probabilities, dangers,
diagnosis and treatment, and
helps them make informed
decisions.
genetic disorder
A hereditary condition
that results from a
defective
gene or
chromosome.
genetic engineering
A term covering all
laboratory or industrial
techniques used to alter the
genetic material of
organisms. These techniques
assist organisms to produce
new substances or perform
new functions, for example
increase yields of compounds
already produced by the
organism, form new
compounds, or allow
organisms to adapt to
drastically altered
environments.
genetic marker
A sequence of
DNA with a known
location on a
chromosome and is known
to be associated with a
particular
gene or
trait. Some genetic
markers are associated with
certain diseases. Detecting
these genetic markers in the
blood can be used to
determine whether an
individual is at risk of
developing the disease. They
are also used as a reference
point for mapping other
genes.
genetic modification
(GM)
Any process that alters
the genetic material of
living organism. This
includes duplicating,
deleting or inserting one or
more new genes or altering
the activities of an
existing gene. It can be
performed on microbes,
plants or animals (humans
included). Where this is
done in humans, it is
gene therapy, and only
human genes are used.*
genetically modified
organism (GMO)
An
organism (plant, animal,
bacteria, or virus) that has
had its genetic material
altered, either by the
duplication, insertion or
deletion of one or more new
genes, or by changing
the activities of an
existing gene.*
genetic screening
Testing a population for
alterations in the activity
(mutations)
of particular genes.
genome
All of the genetic
information or hereditary
material possessed by an
organism.
genomics
The study of the
DNA sequence of an
organism. This includes the
genes that code for
proteins, the regulatory
sequences that control the
genes and the non-coding DNA
segments.
genotype
The genetic makeup of an
organism. The
combination of genes will
interact with the
environment to affect the
physical appearance (phenotype)
of the organism .
germinate
Seeds starting to grow
by putting out shoots and
roots (can also apply to
fungi).
germline
Germline cells are
reproductive cells - the egg
and the sperm. Any changes
to the germline will be
passed on to offspring.
germ cells
The gametes or
reproductive cells (eggs and
sperm), or precursor cells
that will develop into eggs
or sperm.
GMAC (Genetic
Manipulation Advisory
Committee)
A government expert
advisory committee that
provided guidance to the
government and industry on
the safe and responsible
development and use of
gene technology in
Australia before the
commencement of the Gene
Technology Act 2000 in June
2001.
gonad ridge
Within an embryo, the
area of cells that will
develop into the gonads of
foetus. This usually
develops around 32 days
after
fertilisation.
haematopoietic stem
cells
Stem cells that make all
the blood cells in the body.
They are found in the bone
marrow - the tissue that
fills most bone cavities.
haemoglobin
The
protein found in the
blood of most vertebrates
and some invertebrates that
carries oxygen to the organs
and tissues of the body.
haemophilia
An
inherited disease that
is due to a deficiency or
lack of certain compounds,
such as factor VIII or IX,
in the blood. This results
in excessive internal or
external bleeding due to
impaired blood clotting.
hazardous
Dangerous.
hepatitis
Liver inflammation
usually caused by a virus.
herbicide
A substance that kills
plants. Used in agriculture,
horticulture and gardening.
Can be selective (kill
selected species) or
non-selective (broad
spectrum - kill all plants).
hereditary disorder
A pathological condition
due to changes in individual
genes, or groups of
genes or in sections of
chromosomes or whole
chromosomes. These changes
may be passed from parents
to offspring.
heterozygous
Having two different
forms of a particular gene,
one
inherited from each
parent. For example, a
person with brown eyes may
also carry a gene for blue
eyes.
homozygous
Having two forms of a
particular gene that are the
same, one
inherited from each
parent. For example, a
person with brown eyes who
carries another gene for
brown eyes - two of the same
forms of the eye colour
gene.
hormones
Chemicals in the blood
which have a messenger
function within the body.
They are produced by
cells of an endocrine
gland or by nerve cells in
response to a specific
nervous or chemical
stimulus. They affect the
metabolic function of those
cells that have the
appropriate receptor for the
hormone.
host
An animal or plant on
which, or in which, a
parasite lives. While
the parasite receives
nourishment and support from
the host, the host does not
benefit and is often harmed
by the association.
Human Genome Project
The project that has
identified and located all
of the
genes in human
DNA, and determined the
sequences of the chemical
bases that make up human
DNA. This information is
stored in computer
databases.
human serum albumin
Soluble blood
proteins that make up
about 55% of plasma
proteins. They are involved
in maintaining fluid balance
in the blood.
Huntington disease
An
inherited disease due to
a defective
gene on the short arm of
chromosome 4. It results
in loss of motor control and
mental deterioration.
Symptoms frequently do not
appear until after
reproductive age, meaning
the defective gene may
already have been passed on
to offspring when symptoms
develop.
hybrid
Something of mixed
origin or composition. In
the case of a plant or
animal, a hybrid is produced
by breeding together plants
or animals of different
varieties, species or race.
A hybrid is the offspring of
genetically dissimilar
parents.
hydrophilic
Literally means
'water-loving'. This can
describe a molecule or part
of a molecule that has an
affinity for water, or a
substance that readily
absorbs or dissolves in
water.
hydrophobic
Literally means 'water
hating'. This describes a
molecule or part of a
molecule that prefers to be
in an environment where
there is no water. It means
repelling, tending not to
combine with, or incapable
of dissolving in water.
immune response
The reaction of the body
to substances that are
foreign or treated as
foreign. The response is in
a variety of forms, from the
recognition of
antigens in the body,
the production of
antibodies against the
foreign substance and the
response of lymphocytes
(white blood
cells, T cells and B
cells).
immune system
The
cells,
proteins (such as
antibodies) and cellular
activities that work
together to fight off
infection and provide
resistance to subsequent
infection.
immunocontraception
A method (not currently
used) of reducing fertility
of a pest species by
controlling or preventing
conception and pregnancy.
imprinting
Suppression or silencing
of
genes depending on which
parent they were received
from. When
DNA is passed to
daughter cells after
fertilisation of an egg by a
sperm, certain
alleles can become
active only if they were
received from the mother,
others only if they came
from the father. If a gene
is suppressed through
imprinting from one parent,
and the allele from the
other parent is not
expressed because of
mutation, neither allele
can be expressed.
infertile
Incapable of initiating,
sustaining, or supporting
reproduction. Alternatively,
not fertilised and therefore
incapable of growing and
developing.
informed consent
A term describing the
responsibility of doctors or
researchers to ensure that
patients or people have an
understanding of the
relevant facts regarding
their care or participation
in research. Consumers also
have a right to practice
informed consent when they
buy particular foods.
Informed consent relies on
our having access to
reliable, truthful, and
complete information.
inherited
Traits or
characteristics that come
from one's ancestors and are
transmitted from parents to
offspring through
genes. The traits will
therefore be present at
birth.
inner cell mass
Mass of cells on one
side of a
blastocystwhich will
form the body of the embryo.
This is where
embryonic stem cells are
taken from.
inorganic
1. Chemicals that are
not organic, that is, not
manufactured within living
organisms. 2. Any chemical
compound not based on carbon
chains or rings (except
oxides, sulphides of carbon
and metallic carbides that
are also inorganic).
insecticide
A chemical that kills
insects.
input traits
Traits introduced into
crop plants with the aim of
lowering the cost of
production and improving the
performance of the crop in
the field. For example:
pesticide resistance,
herbicide tolerance and
disease resistance. This is
in comparison to traits
introduced into the crop to
produce products with
improved value. These are
referred to as
output traits.
insulin
A
hormone that promotes
the conversion of glucose to
glycogen.
intellectual property
(IP)
The content of the human
intellect, or the result of
intellectual effort, which
is considered to be unique
and original and have value
in the marketplace, and
therefore requires legal
protection and ownership.
This includes copyrighted
material such as literary or
artistic works, industrial
processes, and trademarks
and patents.
intron
A sequence of
DNA, found within a
gene, which is initially
copied into
messenger RNA but is cut
out before the messenger RNA
is translated and does not
have a function in coding
for proteins.
in vitro
fertilisation (IVF)
Methods of carrying out
fertilisation outside
the body, frequently used to
assist couples unable to
conceive naturally.
karyotype
An organised profile of
an individual's
chromosomes.
lactoferrin
A breast milk
protein that promotes
infant growth.
leukaemia
An increase in the
number of ineffective and
immature white blood
cells, causing a
weakened
immune system. This
leaves the body susceptible
to infection.
ligase
An
enzyme that is used to
join fragments of
DNA together, for
example in
gene splicing.
major histocompatibility
complex
A group of
genes that control
several aspects of the
immune response. They
code for markers located on
the surface of all body
cells and are recognised
by the body as 'self'
(belonging to the body).
These genes define a
person's tissue type and are
used to determine whether a
transplant would be
compatible.
mammalian
The group of vertebrates
that have:
- internal development
of the embryo
- mammary glands that
can produce milk
- live-born young with a
body covering of hair or
fur
- a four-chambered heart
- a well-developed
cerebral cortex
- the ability to
maintain a constant body
temperature
- a permanent set of
teeth.
marker
See
genetic marker.
marsupial
A mammal whose
distinguishing features
include the birth of young
at an early foetal stage of
development, and generally,
a pouch (marsupium) in which
further development of the
foetus occurs.
melanoma
A type of
cancer that begins in
the melanocytes (the skin
cells that produce
pigments). It can spread
to other areas of the body
if not detected and treated
early.
Mendelian inheritance
A hereditary process
where genetic traits are
passed from parents to
offspring and are explained
in terms of chromosomes
separating, independent
assortment of genes and the
homologous exchange of
segments of DNA. There are
three modes of Mendelian
inheritance:
autosomal dominant,
autosomal
recessive and X-linked
inheritance. Named after
Gregor Mendel, who first
studied and recognised the
existence of genes and this
method of inheritance by
breeding experiments with
different varieties of peas.
messenger RNA (mRNA)
An
RNA molecule that
specifies the
amino acid sequence of a
protein. It is the
intermediary molecule
between
DNA and ribosomes. mRNA
takes encoded specifications
from the cell's DNA,
processes the message and
takes it to the ribosomes,
where the amino acids are
assembled into
polypeptides, which are
then folded into proteins.
micro-organisms
Organisms that can be
seen only with the aid of a
microscope. They are also
known as microbes.
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
The genetic material of
the mitochondria - the
organelle that generates
energy for the
cell. The
DNA in mitochondria is
different from that in the
nucleus. Many scientists
believe that this DNA is the
remnant of a bacterium that
invaded the cell in very
early evolution. MtDNA is
typically passed on only
from the mother during
sexual reproduction, as only
the nucleus of the sperm
enters the egg upon
fertilisation. Therefore,
little change occurs in the
mtDNA from generation to
generation.
monosomy
The presence of only one
chromosome of a pair.
mono-unsaturated
Molecules, such as fats,
with only one double bond in
their chemical structure.
Some plant oils and
margarines, avocados,
olives, nuts and seeds
contain mostly
mono-unsaturated fats.
moral standing
To say that a group of
organisms has moral standing
is to say that their
wellbeing must be given some
consideration. It does not
decide the question of
whether they have the same
moral standing as people
(and thus have 'human'
rights).
multipotent
The potential to make a
few
cell types in the body.
Usually in reference to
adult stem cells.
muscular dystrophy
A group of hereditary
diseases that cause
progressive muscle wastage
due to defects in the
biochemistry of a muscle
tissue. The most common type
is Duchenne muscular
dystrophy, which is due to a
defective
gene on the X
chromosome. Because the
condition is sex-linked, it
usually only affect males.
It is usually lethal by the
early 20's.
mutation
The process by which a
gene undergoes a change
in the
base sequence. Some
mutations result in the gene
no longer coding for the
correct
protein, or producing a
reduced amount of the
protein.
myxoma
A
virus that causes
myxomatosis in rabbits.
It is carried by mosquitos
and fleas.
myxomatosis
A disease of rabbits
caused by the
myxoma virus. It is an
early form of biological
control.
native
Organisms that have not
been recently introduced
into an ecosystem.
nuclear transfer
technology
A method of
cloning a living
organism. The process
involves removing the
nucleus of an egg
cell and replacing it
with a nucleus from any cell
of the organism being
cloned.
nucleus
The structure within the
cell that contains the
chromosomes.
nucleic acid
DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid) or
RNA (ribonucleic acid).
nucleotide
The subunit of nucleic
acids,
DNA and
RNA, that consists of a
5-carbon sugar, a phosphate
group and a nitrogenous
base. The bases are adenine,
thymine, guanine and
cytosine in DNA and adenine,
uracil, guanine and cytosine
in RNA.
Office of the Gene
Technology Regulator (OGTR)
A part of the Australian
Department of Health and
Ageing that assists the Gene
Technology Regulator, a
statutory office holder, to
administer the Gene
Technology Act 2000 (the
Act). The objective of the
Act is to protect the health
and
safety of people and to
protect the environment by
identifying risks posed by,
or resulting from,
gene technology and by
managing those risks through
regulating certain dealings
with
genetically modified
organisms.
oncogene
A
gene that normally
directs
cell growth, but when it
becomes
mutated, has the ability
to transform a normal cell
into a tumour cell through
uncontrolled growth.
oncovirus
A
virus associated with
cancer.
organelle
A structure within a
cell that performs a
particular function.
Examples include
mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum, vacuoles,
chloroplasts and lysosomes.
Organelles are like smaller
versions of the organs in
your body, each performing a
particular function to keep
the whole cell alive.
organism
A living thing that
contains
DNA and is capable of
cell replication by
itself; for example,
bacteria, plants and
animals.
output traits
Traits produced in
GM crops, which are
beneficial or of direct
value to the consumer. For
example, improving the
quality of food, increasing
fibre, lowering the fat
content or increasing
anti-oxidant levels.
parasite
An
organism that lives in
or on a
host organism and uses
it as a source of food and
shelter, to the detriment of
the host.
patent
A grant made by a
government that allows the
creator of an invention the
sole right to make, use, and
sell that invention for a
set period of time.
pathogen
An
organism or agent that
causes disease. For example,
bacteria,
viruses,
parasites and fungi.
pathogenicity
The ability to cause
disease.
peptide
An organic compound
composed of two or more
amino acids linked
together chemically by
peptide bonds. A component
of a
polypeptide.
pesticide
A chemical that kills
pests.
pharming
The process of farming
GM plants or animals to
be used as living
pharmaceutical factories.
Cows, sheep, pigs, goats,
rabbits and mice can be used
to produce large amounts of
human proteins in their
milk. Plants are being used
to produce vaccines and
diagnostic reagents.
phenomics
The study of an overall
organism and how the
characteristics or
traits of an organism
that we can see (its
phenotype) fits with the
information we know about
its
genes (genomics)
and
proteins (proteomics).
phenotype
The visible
characteristics or
traits of an organism.
Phenotypic traits are not
necessarily entirely genetic
and are produced by its
genotype interacting
with the environment.
phenylketonuria (PKU)
A
hereditary disorder that
results in reduced
production of the liver
enzyme phenylalanine
hydroxylase. This substance
is involved in the breakdown
of phenylalanine in food to
tyrosine. Without a modified
diet, affected infants will
develop severe, irreversible
brain damage.
pigments
Chemicals that are
coloured. For example, the
pigment melanin determines
skin colouration.
plasmid
A small, circular piece
of
DNA found in
bacteria and yeasts,
which is able to replicate
independently of the
chromosome.
plasticity
The ability of cells or
tissue and their function to
be influenced by an activity
and how they respond to
distinct environmental
conditions.
pluralism
The belief that there
are multiple opinions about
an issue, each of which
contains part of the truth,
but none that contain the
whole truth.
pluripotent
The ability to produce
any
cell in the body.
Usually used when referring
to embryonic stem cells.
polymerase chain
reaction (PCR)
A laboratory process in
which a segment of
DNA is copied multiple
times using
DNA polymerase.
polypeptide
A
peptide containing
anywhere between 10 and 100
molecules of
amino acids. Peptides
can either be small
proteins or part of a
protein. A polypeptide is
the ultimate expression
product of a
gene, and is folded into
a functional protein after
it has been assembled.
polyunsaturated fat
A fat that has more than
one double bond in the
molecule.
polymorphism
Variation in
DNA sequence among
individuals.
power
The term power has quite
a few different meanings.
For Biotechnology Online, we
are referring to an
organisation or individual's
ability to act effectively
according to their
intentions, needs, or
values.
predator
Animal that kills
another animal for food.
primer
A defined, short length
of
DNA used to start the
copying process in
PCR.
primordial germ cells
The precursors of
reproductive cells within
the embryo. They are
detectable in an embryo
after four weeks of
development and will develop
into either sperm or eggs.
processed food
Any food product that
has undergone physical or
chemical treatment resulting
in a substantial change in
the original state of the
food.
protein
A long-chain molecule
consisting of
amino acids. The
function of a protein is
determined by the sequence
of amino acids, which is
determined by the sequence
of
DNA
bases found in the gene
coding for that protein.
protozoa
Any of a large group of
single-celled, usually
microscopic,
organisms such as
amoeba.
pseudogenes
A sequence of
DNA that resembles a
gene but is non
functional and cannot be
transcribed. It could be the
remnant of a once-functional
gene that has accumulated
mutations.
rabies
A viral disease of wild
animals that can be
transmitted to humans
through the bite of an
infected animal. The disease
has not yet been detected in
Australia.
rapeseed (Brassica
napus)
The seed of the rape
plant, which is a source of
edible oil. The rape plant
is a bright yellow flowering
variety of the Brassicaceae
(mustard) family known as
canola. It is generally
grown and cultivated for
animal feed, vegetable oil
and biodiesel.
recessive
One of a pair of
alleles that fails to be
expressed in the
phenotype of the
organism when the
dominant allele is
present. Also refers to the
phenotype, when an
individual has only the
recessive allele.
recombinant DNA
DNA formed by combining
segments of DNA from
different
genes or different types
of
organisms.
regenerative medicine
New medical advances in
which damaged body parts or
body tissue is replaced or
the body is encouraged to
heal itself. From our
understanding of our
genes and how they work
to control the growth,
building and repair of our
body, scientists are using
regenerative medicine to
study how to create new
tissues for transplant,
transplant
stem cells into the body
or how to induce the body to
regenerate from the body's
own
cells.
reproductive cloning
Making a full living
copy of an
organism. Currently
illegal in Australia and
many other countries around
the world.
restriction enzymes
An
enzyme (normally derived
from bacteria) that cuts
strands of
DNA at particular points
along its length into
shorter fragments.
retrovirus
A type of
virus that contains
RNA as its genetic
material. Once in a
host
cell they perform a
'backwards' conversion of
RNA to
DNA, which inserts
itself into an infected
cell's own DNA. Retroviruses
can cause many diseases,
including some cancers and
AIDS.
ribosome
Molecule in the
cytoplasm of
cells that coordinates
the interactions between
tRNAs, mRNA and
proteins in the complex
process of protein
synthesis.
rights
Entitlements. Some
rights (human rights) belong
to everyone by virtue of
being human; some rights
(legal rights) belong to
people by virtue of their
belonging to a particular
political state.
risk
Used as a term for a
danger that arises
unpredictably, such as being
struck by a car.
RNA
Ribonucleic acid, a
single-stranded
nucleic acid that
transmits genetic
information from
DNA to the cytoplasm and
controls certain chemical
processes in the
cell, such as the
synthesis of
proteins.
RNA polymerase
The
enzyme that catalyses
the synthesis of a
complementary strand of
RNA from either a
DNA strand or an RNA
strand in some
viruses.
safety
Freedom from danger.
SARS
Severe acute respiratory
syndrome. It is caused by a
virus thought to be a
combination of the
Coronavirus family (a virus
that is often a cause of the
common cold) and the
paramyxovirus family (causes
measles and mumps). The
syndrome includes fever and
coughing or difficulty
breathing, and can be fatal.
It is thought to have
originated in mainland China
in 2003 and has spread to
other countries.
saturated fat
A fat that has only
single bonds in the
molecule.
selective breeding
A process in which new
or improved strains of
plants or animals are
developed, mainly through
controlled mating or
crossing and selection of
progeny for desired
traits.
self-renewal
The ability of
stem cells to continue
to divide and replenish
themselves indefinitely.
sequencing
Determining the order of
bases in a length of
DNA. Provides
information on where
genes start and stop and
where
mutations or changes
have occurred. It also
allows you to translate the
sequence of bases within a
gene into what
amino acids it codes
for, and therefore what
protein is produced.
sex chromosomes
One of the two
chromosomes that specify
the sex of an
organism. Humans have
two kinds of sex
chromosomes; X and Y. Normal
females possess two X
chromosomes and normal males
possess one X and one Y.
silencing
A technique to stop or
interrupt the expression of
a particular
gene, most commonly by
the insertion of a reverse
copy of all or part of that
gene.
single nucleotide
polymorphisms (SNP)
A change in a single
nucleotide (A, T, C, or
G) in a
gene sequence, which
causes a change in
expression of the gene in
the individual's
phenotype.
social hierarchy
An arrangement within a
group of animals, such as
rabbits, where some
individuals are dominant
over others. The more
dominant an animal, the more
likely it is to have
preferred access to mates
and sources of food.
somatic cells
Any
cell in a body other
than a
germ cell.
species-specific
Pertaining to
individuals of only one
species. For example, a
pesticide that is
species-specific affects
only one species.
staple length
The length of the
individual fibres of cotton.
Affects the quality of the
fabric that is made from it.
sterile
Incapable of
reproduction. Not able to
germinate or bear fruit.
STR (short tandem
repeats)
Short
DNA sequences that are
repeated in a head-to-tail
manner. They are useful in
DNA profiling.
surrogate
A person or animal that
functions as a substitute
for another. In the case of
a surrogate mother, a woman
or female animal carries an
embryo and ultimately gives
birth to a baby that was
formed from the egg of
another female.
sustainable development
An approach to
development that meets the
needs of the present without
compromising the ability of
future generations to meet
their own needs. It seeks to
ensure that current
development does not alter
the environment's ability to
recover from any damage
sustained, and also makes
use of renewable resources.
Tay-Sachs disease
A lethal hereditary
disease. The progressive
accumulation of a substance
called ganglioside in the
brain causes paralysis,
mental deterioration and
blindness. Death usually
occurs before the age of
four.
thalassaemia
A hereditary
anaemia resulting from
reduced production of either
alpha or beta haemoglobin.
Depending on the type, the
condition can be fatal
before or just after birth,
or can result in varying
levels of anaemia and
development difficulties.
therapeutic cloning
Generally referred to as
somatic
cell nuclear transfer
technology. It involves
replacing the
nucleus of an egg cell
with the nucleus from a cell
from a patient's body and
allowing it to develop to
form a
blastocyst. The
embryonic stem cells
from the
inner cell mass are then
harvested and used to
establish a cell line that
has the same genetic makeup
of the patient. These cells
can then be directed to
develop into the tissue
needed for transplant.
tissue culture
The separation of cells
from each other and their
growth in a container of
liquid nutrients.
totipotent
Cells capable of forming
a completely new embryo that
can develop into a new
organism. For example, a
fertilised egg is totipotent.
toxic
Poisonous.
trait
A feature that is
genetically controlled.
transgenic
Refers to an
organism with one or
more
genes that have been
transferred to it from
another organism using
recombinant
DNA techniques. See also
GMO.
trisomy
Having three copies of a
particular
chromosome in each
somatic (body)
cell instead of the
normal two copies. This
leads to certain conditions,
for example
Down syndrome (trisomy
21) or Edwards syndrome (trisomy
18).
unspecialised
Having no specific
function.
vaccine
A preparation that
contains either whole
disease-causing
organisms such as
viruses which have been
killed or weakened, or parts
of such organisms, used to
confer immunity against the
disease that the organisms
cause. Vaccine preparations
can be natural, synthetic or
derived by recombinant
DNA technology.
value-added traits
Modified crops produced
with
traits such as improved
taste, nutritional value, or
utility to provide value for
the consumer.
vector
Something used as a
vehicle for transfer.
- A bacteriophage,
plasmid, or other
agent that transfers
genetic material from one
cell to another. It
can often be used carry
foreign
DNA into a
host cell.
- A disease vector is an
agent that transfers a
pathogen from one
organism to another,
for example, an insect.
virus
A group of particles
that do not have a cellular
structure and cannot
replicate outside of a
host cell. They consist
of a molecule of
DNA or
RNA surrounded by a
protein coat. Viruses
can only reproduce in living
cells.
xenotransplantation
The term used to
describe any procedure that
involves the transplantation
of live cells, tissues, or
organs from one species to
another, including
animal-to-human
transplantation.
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